The very early samplers (and I'm talkin' 15th century or so, obviously not American), were used as references by the embroiderer or seamstress, as to how certain stitches were done. These were usually kept in the needlework basket or box, to be referred to when needed and added to as new stitches and designs were learned. [This may be why some have lasted so long.] Random or spot samplers were most common, with motifs and newer stitches placed closely together any old way, to conserve space.

It is only in later times do we see them used and viewed as sources of pride, prominently displayed for all to admire and inspire others. Since young girls almost assuredly knew their alphabet by the time they made them they probable weren't learning their letters from them. Fabric was far too valuable to waste on "practice".

Samplers could depict family events, such as births, deaths, weddings, etc., as well as family trees, family histories, or pretty much anything the embroiderer or her family wanted. As a learning tool, samplers could depict geographical maps, math tables or pretty much anything the teacher wanted her students to commit to memory.

Girls as young as 3 attended dame schools or female schools and learned plain sewing, the very basics of reading and writing as well as some moral instruction. These girls typically made simple samplers, consisting of darning patterns, stem and outline stitch, and frequently a "pious" verse. These were hung with pride. Rarely did a girl get very far in her schooling, for there was so much for her to do at home. All hands were needed to help with the many chores, and since sewing/mending took up a large part of it, it was very important to begin training as early as possible.

All textiles were extremely costly in America and samplers that used many expensive materials were a testament to the family's wealth, not only in being able to afford such materials, but also showing the ability to afford to send a "mere" female to a school which taught the fancy sewing skills along with other "domestic areas". (Wonder what those were: anyone?) Another testament to needlework's value is found in the pages of the Boston Gazette, in which an ad was placed expressing the hope that a lost piece of needlework would be found and returned. I believe the garment was a petticoat, that went missing from a clothes line.

American women settlers appreciated their needlework skills, developed them in the most practical ways, and passed them down to their daughters, frequently without the benefit of a sampler. Extra fabric was truly unheard of. Darning was a very necessary skill along with mending. They all had plenty of real mending to do. I recall, but I can't say where, seeing a picture of an apron with several different motifs embroidered on it, possibly a "usable" sampler, Sunday best?

Mary Titcomb made the oldest dated American sampler that I could find, done in silk on linen, depicting Adam and Eve under The Tree. This was dated 1760.

Since writing the above statement, I've found plenty more. Loara Standish, the daughter of Captain Miles (Myles)  Standish, did one, not dated specifically. Loara was born in 1623 and died in 1656, so...even though not dated, it is definitely older than 1760. The "Fleetwood-Quincy sampler" is dated 1654 and bears the names of Miles and Abigail Fleetwood. This sampler was embroidered in the Chinese style, where both front and back are identical. Many more samplers can be found, most particularly in New England Museums. They are beautiful pieces of work, and I'm constantly looking for pictures and URLs to share with you.  http://www.pilgrimhall.org/samplers2.htm 

Subsequent examples of samplers were frequently composed of an inscription of some sort inside a large square with a large decorative border, which was meant to be the focal point. Large pictures, landscapes, houses, pets, and ships were popular motifs, usually depicting some part of the embroiderer's life or history. Cross-band samplers were still being stitched around the turn of the 119th century to a small degree. 

Some of the motifs may have symbolic meanings.  In the case of mourning samplers, obviously.   I don't dispute this, but I do think that some like to study embroidery and textiles to death.  Good heavens, when I put certain flowers or birds, or whatever, in my designs, I put them there because I either like them, or do them well.  If it looks good, I keep it.  If not, I'll rip it out, or, if I've gone too far, I'll throw it in the chest and start again.  But there is no symbolism in my work, and I fervently hope no one two centuries from now looks for (or finds) any!  I doubt there will be a problem.   :)

Only the wealthy could afford to spend such great sums on a young girl's education, and her work was proudly displayed in the family's home as, possibly, evidence of wealth, social standing, and an enticement to eligible bachelors. The soon-to-be groom and his family would be invited to visit and surreptitiously observe the girl's work, which showed that the match might be well worth their time and trouble.

Many of the samplers on display in various American museums show a similarity of stitches used, (cross stitches, running and darning patterns, satin, rice, queen or rococo stitch, stem and outline, back and Holbein stitches being the most common), as well as motifs and designs. Transfer methods were "pricking and pouncing" or stamping. This is a great way of studying the number of samplers worked in a certain area, attesting to the hard work and knowledge of one teacher and her students. Also, there were many peddlers, who certainly sold the same pattern to many families, so evidence of the same design in a certain area isn't necessarily evidence of a dame school or any particular teacher.

By far, the most popular stitch was the cross-stitch, and it seems it still is the preferred stitch for today's samplers. Though difficult to find, sampler designs and kits using stitches other than this are available. They are lovely and serve as a permanent record of the needleworker's achievements.

Lots of political samplers were done in the 1800s, much as quilts were done, expressing the needleworker's political views as well as those of her husband. Popular motifs included the bald eagle, usually facing left, and George Washington, whose death brought about a LOT of mourning samplers, depicting Grecian urns over a grave, and stitched or painted with name and date.

I received a question concerning the absence of the letter "I" or possibly "J" in some early 20th century samplers. My only offering is that the two letters were very similar and used interchangeably for quite some time. Though I should think that dating from the beginning of the 20th century, (our alphabet being pretty well developed by that time,) these samplers would likely be copies of some older sampler than being original pieces.

"But essentially the letters J and V were not part of the early (Latin) alphabet: the same letters were used for I/J and U/V until about the 19th century. You will quite often see, for example, Jesus spelled as IESVS. So presumably the missing I is a variant of this! Most early samplers had the abbreviated alphabet on them; more recently (say in the 19th century) some might have one short 24-letter alphabet and one long (26-letter) one."

Thank you so much for this information, Rosemary!

Finding an original sampler with the "J" missing may indicate it was done on or prior to 1800. This is from American Needlework, by Georgiana Harbeson.

I encourage everyone interested in the history of samplers, or indeed of any sewing medium, to visit museums when an exhibit is going on, and BUY THE CATALOG! It provides an amazing amount of information as well as photos of the work, and once they're sold out, they are usually gone forever! Pricey, but worth it!

For further reading:

The Sampler Workbook by Jane Greenoff

American Needlework by Georgiana Brown Garbeson

Samplers and Samplermakers, An American Schoolgirl Art 1700-1850 by Mary Jaene Edmonds

Traditional Samplers by Brenda Keyes

Stitches in Time, The Art and History of Embroidery by Hilda Kassell

American Needlework 1776/1976 by Leslie Tillett

"Samplers at Colonial Williamsburg. A Current Exhibit" by Martha Beth Lewis. The Needleworker, Summer 98 p34-36.

"The Milkmaid Motif," by Elly Smith, Piecework, March/April 1999.

"Mourning Samplers" by Susan Deaver Olberding, Piecework magazine, March/April 1996.

For information on caring for old samplers:

"Caring for Old Samplers" by Frances Faile, Piecework Magazine, Nov. 1993. Pp 12-13.

Excellent links on the web:

The Boston Museum of Fine Arts